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Pedagogy (Greek παιδαγωγία, direction or education of children1) refers to the art of education. The term brings together the teaching methods and practices required to impart skills, that is, knowledge (knowledge), know-how (abilities) or attitudes (attitudes).
More generally, the expression “demonstrate pedagogy” means the ability to teach and transmit to an individual or group of individuals – of all ages and in all conditions – knowledge or experience through the use of methods. the most suitable for the audience concerned.
Summary
1 Definitions
2 Distinctions
3 History of Pedagogy
3.1 Precursors
3.2 The educational doctrine of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
3.3 19th century
3.4 20th century
3.5 For an out-of-school pedagogy?
4 Different doctrines or pedagogical methods (in the West)
4.1 Traditional Pedagogy (1657)
4.2 Negative Pedagogy (1762) and Libertarianism (1919)
4.3 Montessori Pedagogy (1907)
4.4 Soviet School Pedagogy by A. Makarenko (1917)
4.5 Project Pedagogy (1918)
4.6 Active Pedagogy (1918), including Freinet (1924)
4.7 Pedagogy Steiner-Waldorf (1919)
4.8 Group Pedagogy (1920)
4.9 Socio-Constructivist Pedagogy (1934) and Motivation
4.10 Pedagogy by Objectives (1935): P.P.O.
4.11 Archetypal pedagogy
4.12 Scheduled Teaching (Skinner, 1958)
4.13 Documentary Pedagogy (1958)
4.14 Explicit Teaching (1960)
4.15 NLP Pedagogy
4.16 Institutional Pedagogy (1963)
4.17 Differentiated Pedagogy (1963)
4.18 Problem solving pedagogy (1969): P.R.S.
4.19 Pedagogy of Mental Management (1980)
4.20 Spiral Education
4.21 Cooperative Pedagogy
4.22 Pedagogy of the challenges
5 Pedagogy and the Internet
6 List of Famous Teachers (West)
7 Notes and references
8 See also
8.1 Bibliography
8.2 Related Articles
8.2.1 Methods
8.2.2 Out of school
8.2.3 Adult education
8.2.4 Lists and Categories
Definitions
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The word “pedagogy” derives from the Greek παιδαγωγία, παιδός (/ ‘paɪdɔr /), “the child”, and ἄγω (/’a.gɔ/), “to lead, to lead, to accompany, to raise”. In antiquity, the pedagogue was a slave who accompanied the child to school, brought him his belongings, but also made him recite his lessons and do his homework2. “Pedagogy” is a word dating back to 1495 according to the dictionary Le Robert [Which one?]. The French Academy admits it since 1762.
Ferdinand Buisson, who was Inspector General of Public Education, gives this definition: “science of education, both physical and intellectual and moral” (Dictionary of Pedagogy, 1887, 2 238 a).
Emile Durkheim: Pedagogy is a “reflection applied as methodically as possible to the things of education” (L’évolution pédagogique in France, Paris, PUF, 1938, 10). “Education is the action exercised by the adult generations on those who are not yet ripe for social life, with the objective of creating and developing in children a certain number of physical, intellectual and mental states. that it demands from him and the political society as a whole and the social milieu to which it is particularly destined “3. For É. Durkheim – and this idea will make a fortune – “pedagogy is a practical theory”, like medicine or politics. Pedagogy is both a theory and a practice: a theory whose purpose is to reflect on systems and processes of education, with a view to appreciating its value and, thereby, of enlightening and directing action of educators.
1. that of the management of information, the structuring of knowledge by the teacher and their appropriation by the learner, field of Didactics
2. that of the treatment and the transformation of Information in Knowledge by the relational practice and the action of the teacher in class, by the organization of pedagogical situations for the learner, it is the domain of the Pedagogy . ” Distinctions In the history of pedagogy, it would be necessary to distinguish methods, systems, movements, approaches, devices, models, approaches, practices … The pedagogical contract is a notion introduced to signify that the teaching can only produce its results if there is agreement between the teacher and the teacher on the very objectives of the training, the expected behaviors of the teachers and the taught students, them, the didactic contract8.
pedagogical approaches are methodological and progressive attitudes of thought emphasizing either the phases, the moments of a work, or the forms, the aspects of an object of research, in teaching. For example, the experimental approach or approach takes place in at least three phases (observation, hypothesis, control) 9 and focuses on at least two points (the reproduction of the phenomenon, the modification of the variables). We can cite the comparative, deductive, historical, scientific, transverse, complex, innovative, systemic11 approaches that are found in both students and teachers or teachers.
teaching devices 12 are administrative structures, arrangements within the educational system, in places, personal, finances, regulations, materials. Examples include the ZEP (1981), the organization of the three-cycle primary school (Lionel Jospin law, 1989), “the common foundation of knowledge” (Gilles de Robien, 2006), the apprenticeship courses. (Xavier Darcos, 2008), the prevention of computer hacking (Christine Albanel, 2009), the system of assessment of student achievement in CE1 and CM2 (2009).
pedagogical doctrines13,14 are large, complex theoretical sets that combine theories and procedures. These are philosophies, visions of the world, ideologies. They assume, clearly identified, a psychology of the child, a philosophy of education, a sociology of the school or university institution. Principles matter. From The Republic of Plato we find doctrines. Pedagogical doctrines can be considered as traditional pedagogy, negative pedagogy (Jean-Jacques Rousseau) 15 or non directive (Carl Rogers, 1969) 16, Soviet pedagogy (A. Makarenko, 1917), New Education (of which Freinet), the Steiner-Waldorf pedagogy.
teaching methods consist of rules and procedures for implementing a teacher’s teaching or a student’s learning, theoretically or practically17. It is used to manage, explain, discover, evaluate. Achievements count more than principles. In this sense, the maieutics of Socrates (called “interrogative method”), project-based learning, contract pedagogy, differentiated pedagogy18, programmed teaching (Skinner, 1958), pedagogy by objectives problem-based learning, computer-assisted teaching19 are pedagogical methods.
pedagogical models 20 are types, references, ideals, principles used in the teaching act, rather than idealized teachers or ready-to-use teaching recipes21. Marcel Lesne (1977) quotes: transmission, incitement, appropriation. Jean-Pierre Astolfi (1992) 22: footprint, packaging, construction. Franc Morandi (1997): tradition, active pedagogies, mastery, differentiation, empowerment. According to Labédie and Amossé: transmission (traditional pedagogy), stimulus-response (behaviorist pedagogy), construction (active pedagogy), socio-construction, metacognition23.
pedagogical movements are “militant organizations, inspired by an innovative educational ideology, bringing together teachers motivated by the same ideal” 24. Ex .: the French Group of New Education (1921, Paul Langevin and Henri Wallon) 25, the Cooperative Institute for the Modern School (1948, inspired by Freinet).
pedagogical notions 26 are concepts, ideas, representations, abstract objects of knowledge. Examples: learning, self-training, competence, writing, education, training, imitation, metacognition27, rules of procedure, school rhythms. Organized, notions form theories.
pedagogical practices 28 concern voluntary activities for educational purposes. They cover a very wide field: instructions, tasks and activities, interactions, rituals and routines, notations and evaluations, stimulations, activity supports (like the use of slate, the use of the computer, the use of the voice) …
Pedagogical styles (or profiles) are the attitudes of the teacher who teaches. Jerome Bruner, the first (in 1956), paid attention to it at the student’s home. There are formal pedagogies (structured) or informal (flexible), directives (authoritarian) or non-directive (democratic or permissive) … We usually distinguish the transmissive styles (the master dispenses knowledge), appropriative (the master helps “student to build his knowledge), modeling (the pupil reproduces or imitates a model, or he elaborates a formal representation). Marguerite Altet distinguishes these “didactic styles”: expositive (information, organization, management), interrogative (questioning, evaluation), incentive (stimulation), animator (guidance), guide (guidance, regulation), mixed-flexible30. Teachers ‘teaching styles are parallel to students’ learning styles: visual or auditory or kinesthetic, reflective or impulsive …
the educational theories 31 each form a coherent set of notions. A pedagogic theory is supposed to explain what is education, learning, instruction, student, teacher, school knowledge. For example, the constructivist theory of Piaget32 advances many notions: stage, assimilation, accommodation, invariance of physical quantities … (but Piaget refuses to be mistaken for a pedagogue, he is a psychologist). Among the pedagogical theories are: traditionalism (Etienne Gilson, 1954, Alain Finkielkraut, 1988), Soviet Marxism (A. Makarenko, 1917), behaviorism (John B. Watson, 1925), constructivism (J. Piaget, 1923), socio-constructivism (L. Vygotski, 1934), spiritualism (Abraham Maslow, Krishnamurti), Pierre Bourdieu’s theory of reproduction (1970) 33, cognitivism (Robert Mills Gagné, 1976) 34,35. .. A theory combines notions, and if theories combine they form a doctrine. But, in reality, things are less clear ..
History of pedagogy
Beforehand, it must be remembered that pedagogical standards are rooted in history and therefore historically situated. Each era contains debates about what to teach (values, knowledge …) and how to teach them.
The precursors
The humanism of the Renaissance saw the birth of some precursors of pedagogy, including Erasmus.
In Germanic territory, Martin Luther is a fundamental initiator of modern education: his motivations are rooted in the very heart of his theology, but also in the religious, economic and social context of his time. The Reformer involves the whole social fabric in this mission educational37. In France Rabelais proposes an ideal of surpassing oneself. At the end of Gargantua (1534), he describes a Utopian abbey, the Thélème Abbey. Rabelais, a monk of his state, knows the monastic life well, and in the description of this fictional abbey he exposes his idea of a humanist abbey where beautiful young men of both sexes would come to study in an ideal living environment. The focus is then on the moral aspect, rather than the religious one. The importance of physical education is reaffirmed. At the same time (1547), Ignatius Loyola gave the order that he founded a teaching vocation on the basis of the new curriculum, the Ratio Studiorum. The colleges which will be opened by the Jesuits in Italy, in France (College of Clermont in Paris, College of La Flèche, where Descartes studies, College of Mauriac and Billom in Auvergne, etc.), then gradually in all the Europe, are the model of secondary education in high schools of the nineteenth century38. For the Czech Comenius, pedagogy must be useful and for all39. Botanical cards designed in the form of playing cards by Pastor Oberlin in the 18th century. In the 17th century, Jean-Baptiste de La Salle founded a secular order to teach free in village schools. It writes for the teachers a treatise of civility for the use of children of both sexes, and a curriculum, the Conduct of Christian Schools, which serves as a basis for the organization of primary education until the beginning of Twentieth century. In the eighteenth century, we return against confinement. We want to train young people in the contemporary world.
The teaching doctrine of Jean-Jacques Rousseau
In 1762, Rousseau wrote Émile or De l’éducation. The subject is “the art of training men” (preface). Rousseau states in this work his principle: the child is born good and it is society that corrupts it. According to him, it is necessary that the child wants to learn and that he has knowledge of a manual profession, something very rare among the nobles of this time. The book is condemned by the Parliament, in particular because of the “Profession of faith of the Savoyard vicar”. This ideal educational program offers an innovative vision of childhood.
In Switzerland, Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi (1746-1827) draws on these theories to found his school. He wants to help the child in real life, but differentiating it according to social classes. For him, the family is the best educational environment40.
XIXth century
In Germany: Paul Natorp and Georg Kerschensteiner. Each individual must train for a particular function. The community must develop solidarity, civic education, respect for authority, and patriotic feeling.
In England: Robert Owen. The choice of teachers is made on their ability to awaken the curiosity of children, their patience, their love of the child41.
In France: Joseph Jacotot calls into question the triangular learning (teacher-taught-knowledge) by introducing the ignorance which makes it possible to restore the revolutionary principle of the equality, base of the emancipation.
Twentieth century
In the twentieth century, the notion of pedagogy changes. Pedagogy becomes a practice, a set of methods. Teachers strive to use elements of psychology, including the emergence of the New Education movement, which sees education as a global act of constructing the person and not merely a retransmission of knowledge.
Main article: New Education.
In Western Europe, the child is taken into account. In the USSR, it is the social dimension.
In Germany, the Steiner-Waldorf schools develop an alternative pedagogy based on anthrosophy. Students learn knowledge and know-how in the historical order in which humanity has created this knowledge. The learning of writing comes later than in the standard teaching of this fact: the historical phase of humanity is relatively recent, oral is first privileged. Music, drawing, dance, the arts in general are very present and the lessons are always presented in relation to each other. For example, the fractions are seen by the prism of the Greek mathematicians and philosophers, the tension of the strings and the reports of notes obtained. In the standard system, after 1945, it is a teaching closer to Rousseau’s concepts that is implemented.
In the United States, with John Dewey, she is pragmatic, experimental, voluntarist and socializing. Dewey is, since 1900, at the origin of the new Education (active pedagogy, listening to the needs of the child, project, learning by doing …).
Medicine helps pedagogy. Doctor Maria Montessori, in Rome, 1907, with her Casei dei bambini, created the method bearing her name to influence the sensorimotor psychology of nursery schools.
For a pedagogy out of school? Some authors like Ivan Illich (see his book “Society without School” 43) denounce the institutional character of the school and argue that the natural context of pedagogy must be based on “exchanges between equals”, led by independent educators. “Compulsory schooling, prolonged schooling, the race for diplomas are all false advances. Ritual devotions in which the society of consumption goes to its own cult, where it produces docile pupils ready to obey the institutions, to consume ready-made programs prepared by supposedly competent authorities. To all this must be substituted a real education that prepares for life in life, which gives the taste to invent and experiment. It is necessary to free the youth of this long school gestation which conforms it to the official model. (…) More disproportionate loans to institutions (school or other). That the means to acquire or transmit knowledge be shared and freely accessible to all. More masters at the same time guardians of the established order, preachers and therapists. But exchanges between “equals”, independent educators “44
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